After the advent of Islam, in the 7th century CE, SĆ«fÄ«sâwho are sometimes referred to as the 'mystics of Islam'âplayed a significant role in the global spread of Islamic culture. Some of the more radical sects of SĆ«fÄ«s use cannabis to excess. In this article, we will briefly survey SĆ«fÄ«s and cannabis culture.
The Origins Of Sufism
The term 'Sƫfī' most probably derives from the Arabic word for wool, suf, which was used to refer to ascetics dressed in a simple woollen garment. However, only rarely do Sƫfīs refer to themselves as 'Sƫfīs' in literature or poetry.i Sƫfīs are more commonly referred to by observers as faqīr (from the Arabic term faqr, meaning 'poor person'), or darvīsh (meaning 'lying in a doorway'). These terms signify the poverty of the individual in relation to God, the rejection of the 'material' world, and becoming itinerant.
Other terms that are used to refer to Sƫfīs include 'abid (devotee) zahid (ascetic), salih (righteous), siddiq (sincere) 'alim (learned), 'arif (gnostic), hakim (sage), salik (wayfarer), 'ashiq (lover of God), and majdhub (ecstatically absorbed).
SĆ«fÄ« institutions, such as hospices or monasteries (khÄnqÄh), initially gained momentum in Syria, Iran and Egypt in the 11th century and subsequently spread to Turkey, Spain, East Africa, Central Asia and South Asia.ii There are many branches of SĆ«fÄ«s. The first major sect of SĆ«fÄ«s was the QÄdirÄ« order, instituted by Shaykh Abdul QÄdir (1077â1166) from Baghdad.iii The Persian mystic and theologian Al-HujwÄ«rÄ« (1009â1072), also known as DÄtÄ Ganj Bakhsh in South Asia, classified twelve SĆ«fÄ« schools. Later Persian authors classified fourteen families of SĆ«fÄ«s,iv while in the 19th century, al-Sanusi listed forty SĆ«fÄ« orders.v Some SĆ«fÄ«s trace their lineage back to the Prophet Muhammad, while other sects claim that their lineage originates with either 'AlÄ« (Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law) or Abu Bakr (Muhammad's father-in-law).
Sufism And Buddhism
Some scholars have proposed a Buddhist influence on Sufism. Almost a century ago, Nicholsonvi suggested that Sufism may have been influenced through contact with Buddhism, which was widespread in KhorÄsÄn (Afghanistan/Tajikistan/Eastern Iran) at the time of the diffusion of Sufism in the late first millennium CE. He noted that the use of rosaries by SĆ«fÄ«s was similar to their use by Buddhists, and that the Buddhist notion of nibbÄna (nirvÄáča) is like the SĆ«fÄ« notion of fanÄ (extinction/passing away, in trance). The final 'extinction' of the individual personality for SĆ«fÄ«s is called fanÄ-al-fanÄ.
Sufi Initiation
The relationship between teacher/master (pīr/shaykh) and disciple (mƫrīd) is central to Sufism. During initiation (bay'a), the disciple shakes hands with the Master and swears an oath of allegiance to him. He professes the five vows of Islam (profession of faith, ritual prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, giving of alms). The disciple is usually given a cloak, which in earlier Sufism was usually blue, but later became a patchwork woollen garment. He is also sometimes given a distinctive hat, indicative of a particular order or sect. Often men's heads are shaved, in imitation of an act of the Prophet. Sometimes the disciple is required to write out a 'family tree' (shahaja) of the Master's sect.
Sufi Practices
It is important to note that there are many kinds of SĆ«fÄ«s with very different lifestyles. Many have ordinary, householder lives and work in regular jobs, at all levels of society. Some SĆ«fÄ« sects, such as the Chishtiâ which, together with the SuhrawadÄ«, first became established in South Asia in the 13th centuryâemphasise the renunciation of wealth and the requirement to live on unsolicited alms (futĆ«h). On the other hand, the SuhrawardÄ«s became very wealthy and influential in Central and South Asia, owning extensive properties and fraternising with the political elites of the time.
Besides pious SĆ«fis, waves of warrior (ghÄzÄ«) SĆ«fÄ« shaykhs arrived in India at the beginning of the 13th century. Between 1296 and 1347, militant SĆ«fÄ«s were extensively involved in Muslim military expansion in India in the Deccan in central India.vii
The Mehlevi (or Mawlawiyya) sect of SĆ«fÄ«s, which originated in Konya, Turkey, was founded by the followers of perhaps the most famous of all SĆ«fÄ« mystics, Jalaluddin Muhammad Balkhi Rumi, a 13th-century Persian poet.viii Mehlevis are famous as the 'whirling dervishes', who whirl (sema) into a trance-like state, while performing dhikr/zikr, the 'remembrance' of God. The use of music in religious practices is endorsed by some SĆ«fÄ« sects, but forbidden in others. Hazrat Inayat Khan (1882â1927), an Indian Chishti, published an influential study of music and sound (originally between 1919 and 1926), making more widely known the role of music in SĆ«fÄ« spiritual practices.ix
Visiting the tombs/shrines (dargÄh) of saints is another important practice for SĆ«fÄ«s. These tombs are numerous and found everywhere in the world where SĆ«fÄ«s lived. Some tombs, such as that of the 13th-century SĆ«fÄ«, Lal Shahbaz Qalandari, in Sehwan Sharif in Sindh Province in Pakistan, attract thousands of visitors, particularly at times of festivals.
Qalandars And The Global Spread Of Cannabis Culture, 1200â1550 CE
Beginning in the 10thâ11th centuries, when SĆ«fÄ« institutions began to develop and lineages of teachers and disciples (silsila) began to become more formalised, there emerged several sects of very radical SĆ«fÄ«s, who were a major influence in the global spread of cannabis culture, all the way from Spain, Egypt and the Balkans to Central Asia, India and Western China. There were several sects of these radical SĆ«fÄ«s, who mostly spoke Persian, known variously as QalandarÄ«, HaydarÄ« or Malang, among other designations. The QalandarÄ« movement first noticeably appeared in Iran in the 11th century.x The numbers of Qalandars swelled after the Mongol invasions of Persia, which erupted at the beginning of the 13th century.
Many Qalandars went to India to escape persecution, becoming a major influence in the development of cannabis culture in South Asia. By the 14th century they had become a familiar sight.xi Sub-sects of Qalandars, such as the JalÄlÄ«s and the MadÄrÄ«s (founded by Badi al-Din Qutb al-Mardar, d. 1440) augmented the significant SĆ«fÄ« presence in north India from the 13th to 16th centuries. To this day, Qalandars/Malangs still go from shrine to shrine at religious festivals, smoking cilams of hashish or gÄñjÄ, eating bhÄáč
g, and receiving alms from prayers and songs.xii
Influential Qalander Sufis
The most significant person in the development of the Qalandar movement was an Iranian, Jamal al-Din SÄvÄ« (d. 1232), who was born in SÄvah, south of Tehran. SÄvÄ«, who had been initiated into SĆ«fism, was inspired while he was studying in Damascus by JalÄl DarguzÄ«nÄ«, an ascetic who lived naked but for leaves covering his genitals. DarguzÄ«nÄ« ate only leaves and weeds, used to sit motionless for long periods of time, sometimes in graveyards, and regularly consumed bhÄáč
g.
SÄvÄ« reacted against institutional Sufism and took to the radical path of the Qalandars, shaved his head and eyebrows and sometimes lived in a tree or graveyards.xiii He became known as a 'walking library' owing to his exceptional knowledge of religious and legal texts. He believed that he had discovered the secret of the divine revelation in cannabis inebriation.xiv The excessive use of cannabis, which was eaten, not smokedâthe social habit of smoking only began in the 17th centuryâwas one of the hallmarks of the Qalandars.
Another important figure in the development of the Qalandar movement was another Iranian, Qutb al-Din Haydar (d. 1222), who is credited with the discovery of hashish by many SĆ«fÄ«s.xv Haydar was also from SÄvah. He carried an iron staff, had piercings in his ears and genitals, lived in nature and drank gazelle's milk. He travelled little and died in SÄvah.
Other significant branches of this movement included the followers of BÄbÄ Barak, centred in Anatolya (in Turkey), the Abdals of RĆ«m (who had a reputation for being able to fly through supernatural power), the JÄmÄ«s, the Shams-i-TabrÄ«zÄ«s, and the BektashÄ«s.
Qalandar Practices
Qalandar ascetics who followed SÄvÄ«, Haydar and other radical leaders, lived entirely outside the law (be-shar) and 'in ruins' (kharabat). The antinomianism of the Qalandars included a disdain for all social conventions, including attitudes to money, property, sexuality and inebriation. They completely renounced wealth and property and were supposed to remain entirely celibate. They wished to rely only on God (tawakkul).
Initiation into most of the radical sects, particularly by the followers of al-SÄvÄ«, entailed shaving the hair from four parts of the body: the hair, beard, moustache and eyebrows (char zarb); however, the followers of al-Haydar (the HaydarÄ«) retained long moustaches. In conventional Islam the loss of oneâs hair and beard symbolized a loss of social status.
Qalandars often travelled in large bands, of up to a few hundred, and were known for begging aggressively and anti-social behaviour. They did not go to mosques nor did they regularly pray, but would utter mystic formulae, such as 'God is the Creator'. They also used a secret language. One of the practices of some Qalandars was to gaze at good-looking, unbearded boys as the manifestation of a reflection of divinity.
At night they would often dance, sing and bang tambourines or drums around fires. Some would walk on the hot coals of the fire; others ate snakes; some would pierce their bodies with swords or sharp, iron rods. They were sometimes described as sleeping with a brick for a pillow.
Appearance of Qalandars
The members of the various sub-sects of Qalandars wore distinctive apparel, which varied according to the sub-sect they were in; most went barefoot. Some wore woollen or felt garments or animal hides. A distinctive hat, a begging bowl, animal bones, a club, a hatchet, a spoon, a candle, and a razor were their other distinguishing accoutrements.
Followers of al-SÄvÄ« wore sackcloth, while the HaydarÄ«s were distinguished by their conical hats, iron collars, bracelets, chains and metal rings suspended from their genitals. Some Qalandars had dreadlocks, some were heavily tattooed, while others went entirely naked, covered merely with ash. In order to control the soul (nafs), some would perform penances such as remaining in icy water in the winter or around fires in the summer.
The Qalandars were accused by many conventional Muslims as being entirely degenerate; and there was concern over the seduction of the youth into the movement. Although Qalandars occasionally ended up as advisors to various rulers, others, such as the Mongol HĂŒlagĂŒ Khan, one of Ghenhis Khan's grandsons, who conquered large parts of Asia in the 13th century, sentenced many Qalandars to death; some had their nose and ears chopped off.xvi
Wherever they appeared, whether in Asia Minor, Egypt or India, the Qalandars, with their wide-ranging networks, influenced to some degree local culture and religion.xvii Such was the influence of the Qalandars on Iranian culture that in the កadÄ«th (âCommentaryâ) literature of Islam, it is implied that hashish (cannabis) came originally from Iran.xviii
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